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Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is an emerging infectious disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which is a highly contagious and pathogenic virus. In December 2019, the World Health Organization (WHO) was notified of a cluster of atypical pneumonia cases in Wuhan, China. A few weeks later, in January 2020, Chinese authorities determined that the outbreak was caused by a new coronavirus. To date, the total number of confirmed COVID-19 cases worldwide exceeds 200 million, and more than 4.4 million people have died from the disease.(1)
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Neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders associated with COVID-19. Part I: overview and neurological disorders
GiacaloneM, Tovani-PaloneMR, MarinL, FebbiM, RussanoT, GiacaloneA. Neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders associated with COVID-19. Part I: overview and neurological disorders. Einstein (Sao Paulo). 2021;19:eCE6448. https://doi.org/10.31744/einstein_journal/2021CE6448
Giacalone,Martina; Tovani-Palone,Marcos Roberto; Marin,Luca; Febbi,Massimiliano; Russano,Tommaso; Giacalone,Andrea. Neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders associated with COVID-19. Part I: overview and neurological disorders. Einstein (Sao Paulo)., v. 19, eCE6448, Oct. 2021. https://doi.org/10.31744/einstein_journal/2021CE6448
Giacalone,M., Tovani-Palone,M.R., Marin,L., Febbi,M., Russano,T., & Giacalone,A. (2021). Neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders associated with COVID-19. Part I: overview and neurological disorders. Einstein (Sao Paulo).,19, eCE6448. https://doi.org/10.31744/einstein_journal/2021CE6448
Giacalone,Martina and Tovani-Palone,Marcos Roberto and Marin,Luca and Febbi,Massimiliano and Russano,Tommaso and Giacalone,Andrea. Neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders associated with COVID-19. Part I: overview and neurological disorders. Einstein (Sao Paulo). [online]. 2021, vol. 19, [cited 2025-09-05], eCE6448. Available from: <https://journal.einstein.br/article/neurological-and-neuropsychiatric-disorders-associated-with-covid-19-part-i-overview-and-neurological-disorders/>. ISSN 1679-4508. https://doi.org/10.31744/einstein_journal/2021CE6448
Figure 5
Risk of bias assessment of non-RCTs using the ROBINS-I tool
Non-RCT, nonrandomized controlled trial; ROBINS-I, Risk of Bias in Non-Randomized Studies-of Interventions